jhemmestad Wrote:
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> [...] To be clear, during the time of the
> Middle Kingdom, if some Hebrews did perhaps
> live in Egypt, would they not have called
> themselves 'Hebrews'? Is there any evidence
> about what they would have referred to
> themselves as?

Something you might like to consider is the rather surprising fact that in the whole of the Old Testament, "Hebrew" occurs only 14 times, and "Hebrews" only 20. By contrast, "Israel" occurs 1798 times (although the latter includes several references to Joseph's father, as well as references more broadly to "Israelites", "the people of Israel", "the men of Israel", etc.).

Of the 14 mentions of "Hebrew" in the Old Testament, the first mention occurs in Genesis 14 when reference is made to "Abram the Hebrew" (interestingly, this is before God's decision to change Abram's name to Abraham following the establishment of his covenant).

Although there is some variation in the biblical use of the term "Hebrew(s)" ('ibri(m)), the term is most commonly applied to Israelites by foreigners or by those wishing to cast aspersions on them, or, conversely, for Israelite self-designation to foreigners. It also occurs mainly in the description of two historical periods: the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt and Philistine-Israelite relations during the reigns of Saul and David.

For instance:

Potiphar's spurned wife's reference to Joseph in Gen. 39:13-14: And when she saw that he had fled out of the house, she called to the men of her household and said to them, ‘See, he has brought among us a Hebrew to insult us; he came in to me to lie with me, and I cried out with a loud voice [...]. (see also Gen. 39:17).

Exodus 2:6: When she opened it she saw the child; and lo, the babe was crying. She took pity on him and said, ‘This is one of the Hebrews’ children’.

1 Samuel 4:6: And when the Philistines heard the noise of the shouting, they said, ‘What does this great shouting in the camp of the Hebrews mean?’ [...].

1 Samuel 13:19: Now there was no smith to be found throughout all the land of Israel; for the Philistines said, ‘Lest the Hebrews make themselvs swords or spears’; but every one of the Israelites went down to the Philistines to sharpen his ploughshare, his mattock, his axe, or his sickle [...].

1 Samuel 14:11: So both of them showed themselves to the garrison of the Philistines; and the Philistines said, ‘Look, Hebrews are coming out of the holes where they have hid themselves’.

1 Samuel 29:2: As the lords of the Philistines were passing on by hundreds and by thousands, and David and his men were passing on in the rear with Achish, the commanders of the Philistines said, ‘What are these Hebrews doing here?’

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Far be it for me to read too much into this, but you might be interested in comparing and contrasting the following two biblical verses. In one, sharing food with Hebrews is described as being "an abomination to the Egyptians". In the second, the identification of the Hebrews as shepherds is indirectly linked to the term 'Hebrew' itself, "for every shepherd is an abomination to the Egyptians".

Genesis 43:32: They served him [ie. Joseph] by himself, and them by themselves, because the Egyptians might not eat bread with the Hebrews, for that is an abomination to the Egyptians.

Genesis 46:33-34: [Joseph in conversation with his family who have arrived from Canaan:] When Pharaoh calls you, and says, ‘What is your occupation?’ you shall say, ‘Your servants have been keepers of cattle from our youth even until now, both we and our fathers’, in order that you may dwell in the land of Goshen; for every shepherd is an abomination to the Egyptians’.

Interestingly enough, the generally accepted etymology of the word 'Hebrew' ('ibri(m)) is understood to mean 'one who crosses over', 'to cross over', 'one from the other side (of the river)', etc. More recently, a further etymological association has been proposed by Daniel E. Fleming which links the Hebrews ('ibri) with the earlier 'ibrum attested in Mari texts, and which refers to the mobile pastoralist communities that ranged across southwestern Syria during the Mari period.

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The other interesting biblical verse is this one, which distinguishes between 'Hebrews' and 'Israelites' in the same context:

1 Samuel 14:20-21: Then Saul and all the people who were with him rallied and went into the battle; and behold, every man’s sword was against his fellow, and there was very great confusion. Now the Hebrews who had been with the Philistines before that time and who had gone up with them into the camp, even they also turned to be with the Israelites who were with Saul and Jonathan.



Damian






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My dear sir, in this world it is not so easy to settle these plain things. I have ever found your plain things the knottiest of all.

- Moby-Dick by Herman Melville

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'I am beginning to believe that nothing is quite so uncertain as facts.

- Edward S. Curtis

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'We are coming now rather into the region of guesswork', said Dr Mortimer.
'Say, rather, into the region where we balance probabilities and choose the most likely. It is the scientific use of the imagination, but we have always some material basis on which to start our speculation', [replied Holmes].

- The Hound of the Baskervilles by Arthur Conan Doyle

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'It never does to be too sure, you know, in these matters. Coincidence killed the professor.'

- "Novel of the Black Seal" by Arthur Machen