Hermione: “But there are some problems here. First, we still don't really know if any of the shafts were intended to point at anything in the sky, and weren't designed and constructed for some other reason altogether.”

After pondering this issue off and on over many years I lean toward the idea that the shafts had a multi-functional purpose - both practical and metaphysical.

We should first consider the problems and opportunities of a pyramid that has the sarcophagus chamber high up in the superstructure.

This unique arrangement that no other pyramid has, may have necessitated a ventilation system - fresh air for the funerary cortege to prevent the participants fainting with heat exhaustion and lack of oxygen from the burning of oil-lamps and to enable the masons to finish the chamber after the ceiling blocks were installed. Lepre spent many months examining the sarcophagus chamber before a mechanical venting system was installed and had this to say about the shafts:

“Both succeed in admitting a flow of fresh air into the chamber, a much needed respite from the otherwise stagnant supply…”

Apart from practical issues, the PTs provide metaphysical clues - the north and south winds mentioned in the PTs flowing through the shafts may have had a role to play in Khufu’s afterlife allowing him to breathe "the air of his abundance”

The shafts may also have provided a way for the smoke of incense used in the funerary rituals to vent out of the chamber. The Pyramid Texts mention the deceased king ascending to the sky on the smoke of incense with the assistance of his celestial relatives.

The sky (sun, moon, planets, stars etc.) played a central role in the royal afterlife of the PTs, so it should come as no surprise that aspects of the architectural design incorporate celestial links. The top opening of the upper south shaft faced an area of the sky where Orion (sAH) the ‘father of the gods’ who legitimised the king’s status in the sky appeared, and where also twice a year his brother the Sun appeared, combining solar and stellar links.

The top opening of the north shaft faced an area of the northern sky where Thuban, the then ‘Pole Star’ appeared during Khufu’s reign. The northern Imperishable Stars circled around this central hub like clockwork every night. Khufu’s pyramid was named ‘Khufu’s Akhet,’ and according to the PTs, not only the ba of the king appeared as a star, but also the king as an akh - the king became akh in the Akhet, took control of the Akhet as ‘Horus of the Akhet,’ and the king became the greatest official of the akhs, the northern Imperishable Stars of the sky.

Underlying the design, is an elegant geometry based on a circle within a square that defined the height of the sarcophagus chamber high above the base and the height of the upper shafts openings in the casing above the base.


Hermione: “However, if Khufu died in 2483 BC [www.maatforum.com] (a date about which there is considerable dispute), what would be the significance of the Al Nilam alignment date? If it's some 70 or 90 years before his death, might it have had some connection with his birth ... ??”


Thought provoking question!

I had a similar idea many years ago when I was studying a tomb of Senenmut, one of the most powerful men in Ancient Egypt serving Hatshepsut, the female pharaoh. In Senenmuts own words, “I was the greatest of the great in the whole land….” He was also ‘Overseer of all the Works of the King’.

His ‘tomb’ (TT 353), if it was a tomb, has its entrance at the southeast corner of an ancient quarry near the northeast corner of Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple.

All four walls of the third chamber are covered with inscriptions. The ceiling is painted with a celestial theme that includes on the southern half of the ceiling, decans, and depictions of the large distinctive constellation Orion (sAH) in the centre, followed by Sirius (spdt), the brightest star in their sky, followed by four of the five visible planets - Jupiter, Saturn, Mercury and Venus (Mars is missing). Hatshepsut's Horus name, 'Horus, Powerful of Kas' (Hrw wsrt-kAw) appears in the two serekhs above Jupiter and Saturn.

Why only four of the five visible planets? Hatshepsut is estimated to have died c.1458. In this year, a spectacular planetary conjunction occurred that had Venus, Mercury, Saturn and Jupiter (the same order as on Senenmut’s ceiling) seen together at dawn in the eastern sky. This planetary conjunction of four planets, might explain why only four planets are depicted on the ceiling of Senenmut’s tomb, and may have commemorated Hatshepshut’s death.

Parts of a text from the ‘tomb': ”O you who are revered before Nut, Senenmut, she spreads over you that she might receive you, that you might rise among the imperishable stars. She has caused you to be a god;…..you have placed Senenmut among the imperishable stars,……”


Hermione: “But what relationship would Al Nilam have had with the birth of an OK king?”


On a practical level, Alnilam was a convenient star to sight to if they were creating a link between Orion and the sarcophagus chamber. Alnilam is in the centre of the 3-star asterism which is in the centre of the large distinctive constellation of Orion, so Alnilam is an obvious choice.

The architects of Khufu’s pyramid or any of the other pyramids are unknown. However, possible candidates are the ‘Overseers of all the King’s Works’. Hemiunu is often assumed to be the architect of Khufu’s mortuary complex, and his father Nefermaat is assumed to have been one of the architects involved in the design of Sneferu’s mortuary complexes. They were both ‘Overseers of all the King’s Works’ and priests of Shezmetet.

If we knew what role Shezmetet had to play in the King’s afterlife it might shed light on aspects of the architectural design and the purpose of the shafts. Unfortunately, no information has survived in the architectural record of the OK that explains what role Shezmetet had to play in the King’s afterlife, and the same can be said of all the other deities mentioned in Dynasty 4 and earlier. Its only at the end of Dynasty 5 that their roles are revealed. For example Shezmetet:

“Unis has been conceived by Sekhmet, and Shezmetet is the one who gave birth to Unis (the king), a star with sharp front and extensive goings, who fetches what the above has for the Sun every day. Unis has come to his seat with the Two Ladies on it, appearing as a star.”

This is clear indication that the sun and stars were an important aspect of the royal afterlife and the possible architects, both priests of Shezmetet, probably looked for opportunities to incorporate solar and stellar links to the sky.

Another question to ask is why did the top opening of the upper south shaft face an area of the sky at 45 degrees altitude where the centre of Orion reached its highest point in the sky as it crossed the south meridian.

The answer may be found on an Early Dynastic seal that has the D61 (sAH) triliteral sign hovering above and behind the national shrine of Upper Egypt - the 'Great House' (pr wr) at Nekhen (nxn) - the "earliest centre of Egyptian royal power and cult centre of Horus as god of kingship.” D61 is used in the PTs with star determinative to write Orion (sAH), the ‘father of the gods’ who legitimised the king’s status in the sky. The seal with D61 above the Early Dynastic ‘Great House’ implies that Orion (sAH) was an important deity associated with royal power very early on.

During Khufu’s reign Orion was seen at its highest point in the southern sky as it crossed the meridian due south at 45 degrees altitude. The 45 degree angle was used in a variety of ways by the master masons/designers of the royal mortuary complexes. The diagonal of the square base of the pyramids is 45 degrees.

A 2000 cubit long, 45 degree angle line connects the centre of the west side of Menkaure’s pyramid to the centre of the east side of Khufu’s pyramid. A parallel 2000 cubit 45 degree line from the centre of Menkaure’s pyramid to the entrance to Khufu’s cult complex on the east side of his pyramid extended 440 khet (22 x 2000 cubits) northeast ends up at the Old and Middle Kingdom cemetery at Iunu where tombs of the ‘Greatest of Seers’ are located (Imhotep, a ‘Great Seer’, was an important artisan/artist - the Michelangelo/Leonardo daVinci of his age, and may have been responsible for the design of the mother of all pyramids at Saqqara).

A 45 degree sight line to Djedefre’s pyramid to the northwest mirrors the Khufu / Iunu alignment.

The third brightest star in their sky is Alpha Centauri, a triple star system, and the nearest star system to our own. It rose 45 degrees south of east and set 45 degrees south of west. The surveyors may have used sightings to the setting of Alpha Centauri 45 degrees south of west to initially align with Menkaure’s pyramid, and extending this sightline in the opposite direction 45 degree NE, Iunu is sighted. Djedefre’s 45 degree alignment with Khufu’s pyramid complex to the SE of his father’s mortuary complex extended to the south east aligned with the rising of Alpha Centauri.

The centre of Orion’s (sAH) 45 degree altitude gave the architects a golden opportunity to include a celestial association with an important sky deity, in addition to the 45 degree terrestrial interconnections linking the royal mortuary complexes of Khufu’s family and the important religious complex at Iunu.

The sun is also included in the sky link. The 3-star asterism in the centre of Orion, synchronized with the sun twice a year.

Alnilam, the center star in Orion’s 3-asterism, rose above the eastern horizon 18° S of E and reached its highest point due south at 45 degree altitude as it crossed the south meridian (visible for about 6 months of the year).

Twice a year the sun also rose 18 degree south of east reaching its highest point due south, 45 degree above the southern horizon. According to the Pyramid Texts the Sun (ra) and Orion (sAH) were brothers and Sirius (spdt) was their sister.

Chris